the story of william Booth

Note: There is no question that General William Booth did much good by founding the Salvation Army. However, I have a serious problem doctrinally with the official position of the Salvation Army on salvation. They teach...

“We believe that continuance in a state of salvation depends upon continued obedient faith in Christ.”

SOURCE: 1878 Foundation Deed Of The Salvation Army

The implication is that salvation can be lost by not continuing in faith. I believe this teaching was more out of ignorance of the Bible than anything else. I believe that William Booth was a true believer and that those in the salvation Army are saved; but they adhere to the heresy that salvation can be lost. Salvation is a free gift from God, which cannot be lost. Those who claim to no longer be Christians were never saved in the first place. 1st John 2:19, "They went out from us, but they were not of us; for if they had been of us, they would no doubt have continued with us: but they went out, that they might be made manifest that they were not all of us." If saved, always saved.

Salvationist

'William Booth started out from Nottingham largely self-educated, penniless, and practically friendless. He had one fixed idea. The whole of his effort and talent would be directed to the one purpose - saving the world. Like his predecessor Wesley, he took the whole world as his parish. So well did he succeed, that before he died, his name was known in practically every country of that parish, and his followers numbered in millions. He began with nothing, had no money, no powerful friends, only his golden voice, his passion, and this vision of man reconciled to God.' -Nottingham Journal



To Save the World

The evangelist halted outside The Blind Beggar Tavern up the Mile End Road, East London. He was a tall figure in a frock coat and wide-brimmed hat and his piercing grey eyes looked out from a pale face. Drawing a book from beneath his arm, he gave out the verse of a hymn and faces pressed against the pub's glass windows. 'There is a heaven in East London for everyone,' he cried, 'for everyone who will stop and think and look to Christ as a personal Saviour.'

 William BoothFrom the pub came a volley of jeers and oaths, followed by a rotten egg. The preacher paused, egg running down his cheek, prayed, and turned west towards Hammersmith and his lodgings. He made his way through savage fighting men, ragged match-sellers, orange-women, and Irish flower girls clad only in soiled petticoats with their bare feet covered in dirt; children with wolfish faces gobbling up decaying food left by the street market, or swaying blind drunk in tap-room doorways. He strode past crowded tenements and stinking alleys where life was a just a struggle; and the dark alleys near the docks where the sick and dying lay side by side on bare boards of fireless rooms under tattered scraps of blanket.

'A large muckheap what the rich grows their mushrooms on,' was how one pauper described East London. After thirteen years as a Methodist Circuit Minister, the preacher was no stranger to it. But as he walked home a conviction grew within him. Towards midnight when he arrived at his lodgings, he found his six children in bed. His wife, Catherine Booth, who worried over their precarious financial position, waited in the living room. Excitedly he burst out: 'Darling, I've found my destiny!' Convinced that the churches had failed the people, William Booth would set out to save the world. The year was 1865.



Sneinton

Son of a speculative builder, William Booth was born at 12 Notintone Place, a red-brick terrace house at Sneinton, Nottingham, in 1829. William was taken away from school at thirteen years of age and apprenticed to a pawnbroker when the Booth family plunged into poverty - a mortgage was called in.

These were hungry years when local stockingers were hard-hit by poor trading and the high price of bread caused riots. Under the three brass balls, the sight of desperate, hungry mothers pawning their weddings rings to feed their families became etched on William's memory.

Life for the Booth family didn't improve when his father died a year later and his mother and two sisters moved to a shop on Goosegate selling toys and tape, needles and cotton. At the age of fifteen William began to attend Wesley Chapel.

His conversion simply came at 11 o'clock one night in the streets of Nottingham while trudging home from a meeting. As he himself recorded, he saw with sudden clarity that he must renounce sin and atone to others for the wrongs he had done them. Kneeling at a bare table in the Broad Street Chapel, he vowed: 'God should have all there was of William Booth.'

Along with his friend, Will Sansom, son of a well-to-do lace manufacturer, he began to emulate his hero John Wesley who had preached in the open air to the downtrodden. His first sermon was outside the house that the pair rented in Kidd Street. Standing on a chair to sing and speak, he urged his listeners in where a room inside was the penitent room.

Noticing that the poorest and most degraded never came forward, William began to address open-air meetings in 'The Bottoms', Nottingham's cruelest slum that housed the outcasts of the Industrial Revolution.

One Sunday morning in 1846, William led his 'gang of slummers' - ragged and dirty converts from 'The Bottoms' - through the main entrance of the Wesley Chapel where they filed into the best seats for worship. They were soon banished to using the rear entrance and required to sit on obscure, backless, wooden benches behind the pulpit, out of sight of the congregation. Methodism had become respectable.

William had one astonishing conversion. 'Besom' Jack, a drunken broom-seller whose wife had been reduced to begging tea-leaves from neighbours, became one of his devoted followers.



London

With apprenticeship complete, almost friendless and penniless, equipped only with a bible, the nineteen-year-old William traveled to London. For a while he worked as a pawnbroker on weekdays and lay preached on a Sunday till a Methodist Reformer and boot maker, Edward Rabbits, heard him preach and liked it. After inviting him home to dinner, Rabbits offered him twenty shillings a week as an evangelist. Within months the Reformers offered him a circuit at Spalding.

At one of the meetings of the Reformers he met and fell in love with Catherine Mumford. Deeply attached to the Methodist cause, she had already read the Bible several times and despite her delicate health was no shrinking violet. She believed in the equality of the sexes and unfailingly bolstered William at his times of despair. 'Never mind. Do not give way. God loves you. He will sustain you,' she would say. To Catherine, William was a man of destiny.

After eighteen months in charge of the Spalding circuit for the Reformers, William began studying under Dr. Cooke at the Methodist Connexion.  So impressed was Dr. Cooke by William's love of mankind that the youngster was soon appointed London Circuit Superintendent.



Traveling Evangelist

 Catherine BoothWilliam married Catherine (pictured right) in 1855, three years after their first meeting. The couple had no settled home for he became the New Connexion's traveling evangelist. Steaming up and down the country by train, they lived precariously on £2 a week, rearing a young not altogether healthy family of children that eventually totaled eight. Though an invalid herself, Catherine found time to look after them, bake the bread, and help at meetings. Without her, William later admitted, he could never have fulfilled his life's work.

At his whirlwind revival meetings, William was averaging over twenty converts a day. In 1857 the Connexion cut short Booth's travels and put him in charge of their Brighouse circuit in Yorkshire where the Booths battled to improve the lot of seven-year-old mill girls working a fourteen-hour day.

Two years later the Booths were moved to Gateshead. To Catherine Booth, the Devil was a personal opponent and at the Bethseda's Chapel, she herself began to preach. Many leading Methodists shook their heads at this revolutionary step and wanted to curb these independent Booths. With his wife's support, William soon broke with Methodist New Connexion.

At thirty-two years of age with a wife and four children to support, William Booth had hopeless prospects. 'All Britain is now open to you,' a fellow evangelist told him but soon the chapels of the New Connexion barred their doors to him. Undaunted, he hired secular buildings, even a circus tent, to which the lost and degraded could come. The Booths carried no dogma. All they wanted to do was to stand up in the market place and sound off the glory of the Lord. Catholic, Protestant, Buddhist or Mohammedan, it didn't matter - these were lost creatures who were in need of comfort and hope.

The greatest preacher since Wesley, Booth was a little flamboyant, a little melodramatic, but he roused thousands to repentance and hope. 'Religion,' he said, 'means loving God with all your heart and your neighbour as yourself.'

Catherine was also much in demand as a preacher and in March 1865 she led revival services in the smoky dockland parishes of East London. It was then that William began preaching at the Mile End Waste where every fifth shop was a gin-shop. With a Bible under his arm, he exhorted those outside the taverns to convert and it was here that his destiny was made plain to him - saving those souls the churches didn't want to know.

In this same year, the hymn 'Onward Christian Soldiers' was written.

THE FOUNDER OF THE SALVATION ARMY

William Booth began The Salvation Army in July 1865. Preaching to a small street congregation in the slums of London, his spirit was as militant as that of a professional soldier while battling an almost overwhelming enemy.

 Thieves, prostitutes, gamblers, and drunkards were among Booth's first converts to Christianity. His congregations were desperately poor. He preached hope and salvation. His aim was to lead them to Christ and link them to a church for continued spiritual guidance.

Even though Booth's followers were converted, churches did not accept them because of what they had been. However, Booth gave their lives direction in both a spiritual and practical manner and put them to work to save others who were like themselves. They, too, preached and sang in the streets as a living testimony to the power of God.

In 1867, Booth had only 10 full-time workers. By 1874, the numbers had grown to 1,000 volunteers and 42 evangelists. They served under the name "The Christian Mission" and Booth assumed the title of General Superintendent, although his followers called him "General." Known as the "Hallelujah Army," the converts spread out of the east end of London into neighboring areas and then to other cities.

In 1878, Booth was reading a printer's proof of the organization's annual report when he noticed the statement, "the Christian Mission under the [sic] Superintendent's of the Rev. William Booth is a volunteer army." He crossed out the words "volunteer army" and penned in "Salvation Army." From those words came the basis of the foundation deed of The Salvation Army which was adopted in August of that same year.

The Salvation Army gained a foothold in the United States by the work of Lieutenant Eliza Shirley, who had left England to join her parents. She held the first meeting of The Salvation Army in America in Philadelphia in 1879. In 1880, General Booth sent a party of eight Salvationists, led by George Scott Railton, to officially begin the work of The Salvation Army in the United States.

In 1886, President Grover Cleveland received a delegation of Salvation Army officers and gave the organization a warm personal endorsement. This was the first recognition from the White House and was followed by similar receptions from succeeding presidents of the United States. The Salvation Army expanded rapidly to Canada, Australia, France, Switzerland, India, South Africa, Iceland, Germany, and many other countries.

General Booth's death in 1912 was a great loss to The Salvation Army. However, he had laid a firm foundation for the organization. Today, The Salvation Army serves people in 103 countries.

Booth, William

Booth, William, 1829–1912, English religious leader, founder and first general of the Salvation Army, b. Nottingham. Originally a local preacher for the Wesleyan Methodists, he went (1849) to London and entered (1852) the ministry of the Methodist New Connexion Church, but in 1861 he began independent evangelistic work. In 1865, with the help of his wife, Catherine Booth, he started the East London Revival Society (soon known as the Christian Mission) in Whitechapel, London. The Christian Mission developed in 1878 into the Salvation Army. General Booth, a remarkable organizer, traveled widely, winning recognition wherever he went. In 1890 he published In Darkest England and the Way Out in collaboration with W. T. Stead. See Booth, family; Booth, Evangeline Cory.

See biographies by G. S. Railton (2d ed. 1912), H. Begbie (1920), St. J. Ervine (2 vol., 1934), H. C. Steele (1954), E. Bishop (1964), and R. Collier (1965); R. Hattersley, Blood and Fire (2000).

The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2005, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

SOURCE

William Booth - "Try Tears"

On April 9,1865, Lee met Grant in the parlor of a private home at Appomattox Court House.  He surrendered his army and brought an end to four long years of death and devastation called the Civil War.  In the same year a 36 year old Englishman by the name of William Booth declared war on the powers of darkness by founding the Salvation Army.

One of the most effective weapons in General Booth's arsenal was fervent prayer. It was not unusual for Booth to hold "an all night of prayer" when he came to preach the Word of God. People would flood the altars every where he went. "The power of God was wonderfully manifest in the meetings . . . people were frequently, struck down, overwhelmed with a sense of
the presence and power of God."

 The Salvation Army's success at freeing the captives was uncanny, especially when one considers those who it strived to reach. General Booth's battle cry was "Go for souls and go for the worst." The worst of sinners were saved, saloons were closed and entire cities were shaken.

Booth's success attracted not only supporters but also enemies. Those who served in the Army were pelted with hot coals, sprayed with tar and burning sulfur, beat, stoned and even kicked to death in the streets. The Salvation Army resisted their enemies with a cheerful "God bless you", and a prayer. General Booth, himself was often in the thick of it. When spit on during the Midlands tour, Booth encouraged his fellow soldiers, "Don't rub it off - it's a medal!"

Night after night Booth would come home bleeding and bruised after being attacked for preaching in the slums of England. After such nights of testing he would take his wife's hand and say, "Kate, let me pray with you." After praying with Catherine he would rise from his knees armed with fresh courage and hope. Booth needed all the valor his wife Catherine could inspire
in him. She encouraged him, "if we get tired we had better go and be done with, anything is better than a dead church." Despite the grinding pressures of the ministry the Booths had a happily united family. The General had nine children and loved to play and romp with them, especially in their favorite game of "Fox and Geese."

Once while traveling, General Booth's car was detained. He took advantage of the opportunity and exhorted some idle factory workers. He said, "some of you men never pray, you gave up praying long ago. But I'm going to say to you, won't you pray for your children that they may be different?" Within minutes 700 men knelt in silent prayer.

At another time, two Salvation Army officers set out to found a new work, only to meet with failure and opposition.  Frustrated and tired they appealed to the General to close the rescue mission. General Booth sent back a telegram with two words on it, "TRY TEARS."  They followed his advice and they witnessed a mighty revival.

During the course of William Booths ministry he traveled 5,000,000 miles and preached 60,000 sermons. God help us in this desperate and distracted day in which we live to heed the General's advice. "Work as if everything depended upon your work, and pray as if everything depended upon your prayer."

References Used:

     "The General Next To God" by Richard Collier
     "Deeper Experiences of Famous Christians" by James G. Lawson
     "The Life of General William Booth" by H. Begbie

Chronological History

1829 - William Booth was born at 12 Notintone Place in Sneinton, Nottingham.
1842 - Taken out of school at 13 years old, to become an apprentice pawn broker. His family had been plunged into poverty.
1843 - Father dies.
1845 - Starts to attend Wesley Chapel. During this time he believed that he must renounce sin and atone to others for the wrongs he had done to them. William begins to address open air meetings.
1846 - Leads converts from the slums into the Wesley Chapel, they're quickly moved to the back of the hall. William becomes the New Connexion's travelling evangelist.
1855 - Marries Catherine.
1857 - William begins gathering 20 converts a day, Connexion cut short Booth's travels and put him in charge of their Brighouse circuit in Yorkshire.
1859 - William and Catherine break with Methodist New Connexion. William goes alone, and becomes a respected preacher.
1865 - William begins preaching around London's Mile End, trying to save souls that the church didn't want to know.
1875 - After his first sermons at Mile End, William has 26 stations. Around this time they were known as the Volunteer army.
1878 - Their name is changed to the Salvation Army. Various achievements are made, including groundbreaking work with the poor and a labour exchange.
1890 - Catherine Booth dies.
1890 onwards - Booth becomes a wildly respected international figure fighting poverty.
1912 - On 21st August, William Booth dies aged 83. 150,000 mourners attend his funeral.

Relative Clause

RELATIVE CLAUSE
We use relative clause to give additional information about something without starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.

How to form relative clause?

Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know she is and ask a friend whether he knows her. You could say:

"A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl?"

That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? it would be easier with a relative clause: you put both pieces of information into one sentece. Start with the most important thing: you want to know who the girl is.

"Do you know the girl....."

As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the additional information - the girl is talking to Tom. Use "the girl" only in the first part of the sentence, in the second part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use the relative pronoun "who"). So, the final sentence is:

"Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?"

Relative Pronoun
Who : subject or object pronoun for people
Which : subject or object pronoun for animals and things
Whose : possession for people, animals, and things
Whom : object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who)
That : subject or object pronoun for people, animals, and thing in defining relative clauses

(Source:  http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/relative-clauses )

bahasa inggris bisnis 2

Excercise 37 : 

Relative Clauses

1. The last record which produced by this company became a gold record
2. Checking account that require a minimum balance are very common now
3. The professor whose you spoke yesterday is not here today
4. John whose grades are the highest in the school, has received a scholarship
5. Felipe bought a camera that has three lenses
6. Frank are who were nominated for the office of treasurer
7. The doctor is with a patient whose leg was broken in an accident
8. Jane is the women who going to China next years
9. Janet wants a typewriter whose self-correct
10. This book that i found the book last week, contains some useful information
11. Mr Bryant whose team has lost the game, looks very sad
12. James wrote an article whose indicated that he disliked the president
13. The director of the program whose graduated from Harvard University, is planning to retire next year
14. This is the look that I have been looking for this book all years
15. William whose brother is a lawyer, wants to become a judge

 Excercise 38: Relative Clauses Reduction

1. Who was
2. That was
3. That are
4. Who was
5. Who is
6. Who is
7. Who is
8. That is
9. Who have been
10. Who is

Excercise 39: Subjunctive

1. Leave
2. Call
3. Correct
4. Suspend
5. Take
6. Correct
7. That
8. Attend
9. Correct
10. Find

Salvation

Need for Salvation: Sin and Death

In Christianity, salvation is made possible by the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ by crucifixion 2,000 years ago. The word atonement, one of the few theological words of English origin, is used to describe this concept. The verb "atone" derives from the adverb "at one," and therefore means "to reconcile."

The Catholic Encyclopedia defines "atonement" as "the Satisfaction of Christ, whereby God and the world are reconciled or made to be at one." Similarly, the Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church describes it as "man's reconciliation with God through the sacrificial death of Christ." The death of Christ on the cross, then, is seen not just as a historical tragedy but as the basis for salvation from sin.

The atonement has been understood in various ways in Christianity, which are often grouped into four (sometimes six) "theories" of how the death of Christ results in the salvation of humanity. These theories are not generally regarded as mutually exclusive. In the words of Oxford theologian Alister McGrath, "it can be argued that the views of most writers on this subject cannot be reduced to or confined within a single category, without doing serious violence to their ideas." On the other hand, some conservative sources argue that not all are biblical or correct.

Sacrificial Theory of the Atonement

In Judaism, before the Temple was replaced by the synagogue, a central part of Jewish practice was animal sacrifice. As in many other ancient religions, Jews believed that the blood of the sacrificed animal paid the penalty for human sins. Old Testament prophets often pointed out, however, that such sacrifice was worthless without true repentance (see, e.g., Isaiah 1:10-17, Hosea 6:6).

This existing idea of sacrifice was then applied to Christ's death in the New Testament, which, it will remembered, was written almost exclusively by Jews. Thus Romans 3:25 declares that "God presented him [Christ] as a sacrifice of atonement" and 1 John 2:2 states, "He is the atoning sacrifice for our sins." In the Gospel of John, Jesus is specifically likened to the Passover lamb (see John 19:14,36). The idea is that Christ, being innocent, was a perfect blood sacrifice that took away the sins not just of one person or one congregation, but the whole world.

The sacrificial theory of the atonement was further developed by such important theologians as Augustine and Athanasius. It has lost some popularity since the Enlightenment, but continues to be important especially to Roman Catholic theology.

Ransom Theory of the Atonement (or Christus victor)

Like the sacrificial theory, the ransom theory of the atonement also has its basis in the New Testament. In Mark 10:45, Jesus explains, "For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve and to give his life as a ransom for many," and 1 Timothy 2:6 declares that "the man Christ Jesus gave himself as a ransom for all men."

A ransom, of course, is some form of payment made to attain the freedom of someone held in captivity. Kidnappers demand a ransom of money for the safe return of their victim, for instance. Thus the idea is that Christ's death released sinners from their captivity.

However, extended contemplation of this theory leads to complications. Origen of Alexandria, for example, pointed out that a ransom must be paid to someone. But it could not have been paid to God, since he does not hold sinners captive, it must have been paid to the devil. Gregory the Great and later writers developed this idea further, suggesting that Christ tricked or trapped the devil. This rested on the assumption that the devil had acquired rights over sinful humanity that God had to recognize, and that if he exceeded the limits of his authority, he would have to forfeit his rights. As Rufinus of Aquileia explained, around 400 AD:

[The purpose of the Incarnation] was that the divine virtue of the Son of God might be like a kind of hook hidden beneath the form of human flesh... to lure on the prince of this world [the devil] to a contest; that the Son might offer him his human flesh as a bait and that the divinity which lay underneath might catch him and hold him fast with its hook...Having swallowed it, he was immediately caught. {1}

This view of the atonement was closely associated with the victory of Christ over sin, death and hell, and was very popular in the Middle Ages. In more modern times, Rudolf Bultmann and Paul Tillich offered existentialist understandings of Christus victor, interpreting it as a victory over inauthentic experience and unbelief. However it is understood, the idea that something cosmically dramatic happened at the cross continues to be an important part of Christian belief.

Meaning of Salvation

Christian theology and evangelism centers on the "good news" that Christ's death and resurrection opened up the way for salvation. The last article explored what Christians are saved from - sin, suffering, death and hell. We now turn to the next logical question: "What are Christians saved to?" In other words, what does salvation mean and what difference does it make in this life and the next?

The nature of salvation has been understood in various ways throughout Christian history. Certain interpretations have held more appeal for certain cultures or Christian traditions, but few Christians would argue that there is a single, "true" understanding of the nature of salvation. This article explores four major perspectives on the meaning of Christian salvation: deification, righteousness, authentic human existence, and liberation.

Salvation as Deification (Theosis)

The idea of salvation as deification may be summed up in the phrase, "God became human so that humans might become God." This does not mean that humans can be another god or equal to God, but rather that they can hope to participate in the divine nature.

The notion of deification (Theosis in Greek) is based on the perspective that when Christ was incarnate in the man Jesus, he did take on just one human nature, but all of human nature. He thus made it possible for the reverse to occur – for humans to participate in the divine nature. "The Son of God, as the one through whom the process of creation was fulfilled, came down from heaven into the world and became fully man, i.e. assumed human nature in its integrity and led it to the fulfillment of its God-given destiny, deification." (Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America)

The understanding of salvation as deification has had considerable appeal in eastern Christianity, both in the early patristic fathers and in modern Greek and Russian Orthodoxy. Instances of this doctrine in the early Greek fathers include for example:

We are not made gods from the beginning; first we are mere humans, then we become gods. --St. Irenaeus, Adv Haer III IV:38:4

Let us become the image of the one whole God, bearing nothing earthly in ourselves, so that we may consort with God and become gods, receiving from God our existence as gods --St. Maximus the Confessor On Theology, 7.73

For the Son of God became man, that we might become God. --St. Athanasius, De inc.

He has called men gods that are deified of His Grace, not born of His Substance.--St. Augustine

The Word became flesh and the Son of God became the Son of Man: so that man, by entering into communion with the Word and thus receiving divine sonship, might become a son of God --St. Irenaeus, Adv Haer III

Let us applaud and give thanks that we have become not only Christians but Christ himself. Do you understand, my brothers, the grace that God our head has given us? Be filled with wonder and joy--we have become veritable Christs! --St. Augustine of Hippo

The Only-begotten Son of God, wanting us to be partakers of his divinity, assumed our human nature so that, having become man, he might make men gods. --St. Thomas Aquinas

The highest of all things desired is to become God. --St Basil the Great

Means of Salvation

This article seeks to answer the question asked by a prison guard in the New Testament book of Acts: "Sirs, what must I do to be saved?" The answer the apostles gave to that man was fairly straightforward: "Repent and believe." However, the many biblical passages that touch on the question of "how to be saved," along with various other influences, have led to more complex thought on the subject.

For instance, the New Testament seems to teach the importance of both faith and works for salvation, so the further questions arise: Are faith, good works, or both necessary for salvation? Faith in what or whom? How do faith and works relate to each other?

In addition, New Testament authors and other Christian theologians have taught that individuals must repent, believe, and otherwise work for their own salvation, but also that salvation is not entirely a human enterprise - God takes an active role, helping humans to be saved through his grace. Some Christians have even taught that humans are so helpless in their state of sin that God most do all the work, or at least take the first step. This raises the complicated issue of how human free will and effort relates to God's grace and predestination.

The following article attempts to summarize the ways in which these issues have been addressed in Christianity and how they relate to the simple question, "What must I do to be saved?"

Salvation by Faith

Since the time of the apostles, Christians have preached the importance of faith in such things as the true God, the work of Christ on the cross, and Christ's resurrection, and this faith has often been connected with salvation. Important Christian leaders and theologians who lived after New Testament times continued this theme.

Salvation by Works

At the same time, however, good works and the development of virtues has also been emphasized as essential to the Christian life and to salvation.

And do ye, each and all, form yourselves into a chorus, that being harmonious in concord and taking the key note of God ye may in unison sing with one voice through Jesus Christ unto the Father, that He may both hear you and acknowledge you by your good deeds to be members of His Son. It is therefore profitable for you to be in blameless unity, that ye may also be partakers of God always. (Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Ephesians 4:2) No man professing faith sinneth, and no man possessing love hateth. The tree is manifest from its fruit; so they that profess to be Christ's shall be seen through their actions. For the Work is not a thing of profession now, but is seen then when one is found in the power of faith unto the end. (Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Ephesians 14:2)

References

1. Alister McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, 2nd. ed., pp. 386-422.
2. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church.
3. The Catholic Encyclopedia.

General Resources

• Salvation in Christian Theology - Questia Online Library
• Salvation - Catholic Encyclopedia
• The Articles of Religion of the Methodist Church IX-XV
• Salvation - basictheology.com

Atonement

• Doctrine of the Atonement - Catholic Encyclopedia
• "Did Christ's passion merit our salvation?" - Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica
• "God the Son" - Book of Common Prayer (Anglican/Episcopalian), page 850.

Meaning and Process of Salvation

• Sanctifying Grace - Catholic Encyclopedia
• Once Saved, Always Saved? - Ask Father, Conciliar Press (Orthodox). Discusses Orthodox vs. Protestant understanding of salvation as well as the perseverance issue

http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/beliefs/salvation

Task 4 : Causative Verbs Article

Causative Verbs in English: Let, Make, Have, Get, Help

The English verbs let, make, have, get, and help are called causative verbs because they cause something else to happen.

Here are some specific examples of how causative verbs work in English sentences.

How to use causative verbs in English

LET = permit something to happen

Grammatical structure:

LET + PERSON/THING + VERB (base form)

Examples:

1. I don’t let my kids watch violent movies.
2. Mary’s father won’t let her adopt a puppy because he’s allergic to dogs.
3. Our boss doesn’t let us eat lunch at our desks; we have to eat in the cafeteria.
4. Oops! I wasn’t paying attention while cooking, and I let the food burn.
5. Don’t let the advertising expenses surpass $1000.

Remember: The past tense of let is also let; there is no change!

Note: The verbs allow and permit are more formal ways to say “let.” However, with allow and permit, we use to + verb:

I don’t allow my kids to watch violent movies.

Our boss doesn’t permit us to eat lunch at our desks.

MAKE = force or require someone to take an action

Grammatical structure:

MAKE + PERSON + VERB (base form)

Examples:

1. After Billy broke the neighbor’s window, his parents made him pay for it.
2. My ex-boyfriend loved sci-fi and made me watch every episode of his favorite show.
3. The teacher made all the students rewrite their papers, because the first drafts were not acceptable.

Note: When using the verbs force and require, we must use to + verb.

The school requires the students to wear uniforms.

“Require” often implies that there is a rule.

The hijacker forced the pilots to take the plane in a different direction.

“Force” often implies violence, threats, or extremely strong pressure

HAVE = give someone else the responsibility to do something

Grammatical structure:

HAVE + PERSON + VERB (base form)

HAVE + THING + PAST PARTICIPLE OF VERB

Examples of grammatical structure #1:

1. I’ll have my assistant call you to reschedule the appointment.
2. The businessman had his secretary make copies of the report.

Examples of grammatical structure #2:

1. I’m going to have my hair cut tomorrow.
2. We’re having our house painted this weekend.
3. Bob had his teeth whitened; his smile looks great!
4. My washing machine is broken; I need to have it repaired.

Note: In informal speech, we often use get in these cases:

I’m going to get my hair cut tomorrow.

We’re getting our house painted this weekend.

Bob got his teeth whitened; his smile looks great!

My washing machine is broken; I need to get it repaired.

GET = convince/encourage someone to do something

Grammatical structure:

GET + PERSON + TO + VERB

Examples:

1. How can we get all the employees to arrive on time?
2. My husband hates housework; I can never get him to wash the dishes!
3. I was nervous about eating sushi, but my brother got me to try it at a Japanese restaurant.

The non-profit got a professional photographer to take photos at the event for free.

HELP = assist someone in doing something

Grammatical structure:

HELP + PERSON + VERB (base form)

HELP + PERSON + TO + VERB

After “help,” you can use “to” or not – both ways are correct. In general, the form without “to” is more common:

He helped me carry the boxes.

He helped me to carry the boxes.

Reading before bed helps me relax.

Reading before bed helps me to relax.

Source: http://www.espressoenglish.net/causative-verbs-in-english-let-make-have-get-help/

Task 3 / Exercise 31-36

Task 3 - Exercise 31-36

Exercise 31

1. Twelve

2. Language

3. Three acts

4. Two days

5. 79 pieces

6. Five shelves

7. 16 ounces each

8. Six quarts

9. Bricks

10. Ten speeds

Exercise 32 : Enough

1. Enough people

2. Enough French

3. Enough time

4. Fast enough

5. Soon enough

6. Early enough

7. Hard enough

8. Slowly enough

9. Enough flour

10. Enough books

Exercise 33 : Because/Because Of

1. Because

2. Because

3. Because of

4. Because

5. Because of

6. Because

7. Because of

8. Because

9. Because

10. Because of

Exercise 34 : So/Such

1. So

2. Such

3. Such

4. Such

5. So

6. So

7. Such

8. So

9. So

10. Such

11. So

12. So

13. Such

14. So

15. So

Exercise 35 : Passive Voice

1. The president is called by somebody everyday.

2. The other members are being called by Jhon.

3. Mr. Watson will be called by somebody tonight.

4. Considerable damage has been caused by the fire.

5. The suppliers should be bought by the teacher for this class.

Exercise 36 : Causative Verbs

1. Leave
2. Repaired
3. To type
4. Call
5. To paint
6. Write
7. Lie
8. To send
9. To cut
10. Sign
11. Leave
12. To wash
13. Fixed
14. Published
15. To find

Seven Reasons We Don’t Take Care of Ourselves

Seven Reasons We Don’t Take Care of Ourselves

by Joyce Meyer

I meet a lot of people in the course of my ministry. Sadly, I see too many who are not taking care of themselves. Many of them clearly feel terrible. Anyone can see this in the way they look and the way they carry themselves. You simply cannot look really great if you don’t feel great. How you feel will show up somewhere; in your body language, the dull look in your eyes, or even the color of your skin.

It is in our nature to take care of ourselves, so why don’t we? I thought about the ways that this can go wrong, and I came up with these reasons:

1. We don’t know how to take care of our physical bodies. Decades of bad diets, misinformation, and easy access to fast food and prepackaged food have left people amazingly confused about what a wholesome diet is and how they should eat.

2. We have a skewed body image planted in our minds by media and advertising. On one side we are inundated with unattainable ideals of beauty, while on the other, obesity is so prevalent that it’s almost considered the norm. We need to reset our internal picture of what a healthy person should look like.

3. We have lost touch with exercise. For virtually all of human existence, exercise was an integral part of our daily existence. Now we’ve invented enough conveniences that we often live completely divorced from exercise. However, it turns out a good deal of our well-being is dependent on exercise.

4. We have let ourselves slip into unworkable lives. With the incredible pressures of juggling career and parenthood, paying steep mortgages and increased fuel prices and burning the proverbial candle at both ends and everywhere in between, it is oh-so-easy to put the workout off, grab a cheeseburger on the run, cheat our sleep time in order to catch up on paperwork and let the tail wag the dog until we’ve cut everything out of our lives that once gave us pleasure or kept us sane. This is bad enough, because life is a gift and is meant to be joyful. It should be pleasurable and sane.

5. We have become pathologically selfless. Selflessness can be addictive. It feels so good to do for others and it makes us feel important. Yes, it is a good thing to help others and should be a major part of our life, but in my line of work, I often see people who routinely ignore their basic needs. The only thing that gives them meaning is doing things for others. This is admirable, but it can easily cross the line into mistaking suffering for virtue. Martyrs usually end up bitter. And once the body breaks down and life is no longer joyful, it becomes increasingly hard to serve anyone. Volunteers in a soup kitchen don’t let their pots fall apart while they ladle out one more bowl of soup. They take the time to care for the equipment they need to do their calling. And you should do the same with your most important piece of equipment—your body.

I am not suggesting that we be selfish because that renders us very unhappy and is not how God teaches us to live. We are to live sacrificially and be involved in doing good works, but we must not ignore our own basic needs in the process. Everything in life must be balanced or something breaks down and quite often it is us.

6. We have lost our support. When we don’t have a good social network or a godly foundation to keep our spirits high, it becomes easy to slip into boredom, loneliness, and depression. If we aren’t able to somehow fill that void, the devil will. You may have heard the saying “Nature abhors a vacuum.” Well, let me tell you, the devil loves one! He’ll put lots of bad food within easy reach and let you mistake spiritual or emotional hunger for physical hunger. Maintaining a good support network is a terrific way to prevent the formation of bad habits.

We need to have right people around us who will speak if they see us getting out of balance. We need to spend regular time in fellowship with God and learning His principals. His Holy Spirit who works through His Word convicts us of wrongdoing and gives us the chance to make positive changes before we break down or become ill.

7. We have forgotten our own value. This is the biggest reason we don’t take care of ourselves. If you don’t understand your own importance in the Big Plan, taking care of yourself seems pointless. Reminding you of your place in God’s plan is my first and most important task.

If you’re not sure of your value in God’s eyes, then I invite you to read this article. There’s a crucial link between our spirits and our bodies that we all need to understand.

God has a great future planned for you and you need to be ready for it! You need to look great and feel great, ready to do whatever God asks of you.

sumber :

https://www.joycemeyer.org/articles/ea.aspx?article=7_reasons_we_dont_take_care_of_ourselves

Comparisons

Comparative and superlative adjectives

Comparative adjectives

Comparative adjectives compare one person or thing with another and enable us to say whether a person or thing has more or less of a particular quality:

Josh is taller than his sister.

I’m more interested in music than sport.

Big cars that use a lot of petrol are less popular now than twenty years ago.

Superlative adjectives

Superlative adjectives describe one person or thing as having more of a quality than all other people or things in a group:

The ‘Silver Arrow’ will be the fastest train in the world when it is built.

The most frightening film I’ve ever seen was Alfred Hitchcock’s ‘Psycho’.

What is the least expensive way of travelling in Japan?

Comparative or superlative?

A comparative compares a person or thing with another person or thing. A superlative compares a person or thing with the whole group of which that person or thing is a member:

Joe’s older than Mike. (comparing one person with another)

Sheila is the youngest girl in the family. (comparing one person with the whole group she belongs to)

When there are just two members in a group, traditionally, we use the comparative. However, in informal situations people often use the superlative:

Who is younger, Rowan or Tony? (traditional usage)

Jan and Barbara are both tall, but Jan’s the tallest. (more informal)

Comparative and superlative adjectives: form

One-syllable adjectives (big, cold, hot, long, nice, old, tall)

To form the comparative, we use the -er suffix with adjectives of one syllable:

It’s colder today than yesterday.

It was a longer holiday than the one we had last year.

Sasha is older than Mark.

To form the superlative, we use the -est suffix with adjectives of one syllable. We normally use the before a superlative adjective:

I think that’s the biggest apple I’ve ever seen!

At one time, the Empire State building in New York was the tallest building in the world.

They have three boys. Richard is the oldest and Simon is the youngest.

Longer adjectives

Adjectives of three or more syllables form the comparative with more/less and the superlative with most/least:

The second lecture was more interesting than the first.

Not: The second lecture was interestinger …

That way of calculating the figures seems less complicated to me.

London is the most popular tourist destination in England.

Not: London is the popularest …

If you are going as a group, the least expensive option is to rent an apartment or villa.

Comparative adjectives: using much, a lot, far, etc.

We can strengthen or emphasise a comparative adjective using words such as much, a lot, far, even or rather, or by using than ever after the adjective:

This food is much better than the food we had yesterday.

The town is a lot more crowded these days because of the new shopping centre.

Alex is far less intelligent than the other kids in the class.

We’ve been busier than ever at work this last month or so.

We can soften a comparative adjective using a little or a bit. A bit is less formal:

She feels a little more confident now that she’s given her first public performance.

or She feels a bit more confident … (less formal)

Comparative adjectives: using than

We use than when we mention the second person or thing in the comparison. If the second person mentioned takes the form of a personal pronoun, we normally use the object form of the pronoun (me, you, him, her, us, them):

Could you carry this? You’re stronger than me.

Not: You’re stronger than I.

Why did you choose Robert? Marie is more experienced than him.

In more formal situations, instead of than + object pronoun, we can use than + subject pronoun + be:

You managed to answer the ten questions correctly? Well, you’re definitely cleverer than I am!

I preferred Henrietta to Dennis. She was always more sociable than he was.

Comparative adjectives: -er and -er, more and more

To talk about how a person or thing is changing and gaining more of a particular quality, we can use two -er form adjectives connected by and, or we can use more and more before an adjective. We don’t follow such comparisons with than:

The weather is getting hotter and hotter.

I’m getting more and more interested in conservation these days.

Comparative adjectives: the -er, the -er and the more …, the more …

If a person or things gains more of a particular quality and this causes a parallel increase of another quality, we can repeat the + a comparative adjective:

The colder it is, the hungrier I get. (as the weather gets colder, I get hungrier)

The more generous you are towards others, the more generous they are likely to be towards you.

Reduced forms after comparatives

After than, we often don’t repeat subject pronouns with impersonal subjects, or auxiliary verbs with passive voice verbs:

The exam results were better than predicted. (preferred to … better than people predicted.)

Temperatures that summer were higher than previously recorded. (preferred to … than were previously recorded.)

Less and not as/not so with comparatives

We use less with longer adjectives (interesting, beautiful, complicated), but we don’t normally use less with short adjectives of one syllable (big, good, high, small). Instead we use not as … as …, or not so … as … Not as is more common than not so:

The second method was less complicated than the first one.

This new laptop is not as fast as my old one. I’m sorry I bought it now. (preferred to is less fast than my old one.)

Prepositions after superlative adjectives

We don’t normally use of before a singular name of a place or group after a superlative adjective:

The castle is the oldest building in the city.

Not: The castle is the oldest building of the city …

She’s the youngest musician in the orchestra.

However, we can use of with a plural word referring to a group:

All the sisters are pretty, but Sarah’s the prettiest of them all.

The with superlative adjectives

When a superlative adjective is followed by a noun, we normally use the:

This is the best meal I’ve had for a long time.

Not: This is best meal …

In informal situations, we can often omit the after a linking verb (be, seem) or a verb of the senses (look, taste) if there is no noun:

[talking about sweaters in a shop]

They’ve got them in red, green or grey. Which looks best?

If you want to get a message to Peter, email is quickest. He never answers the phone.

Other determiners with superlative adjectives

Before a superlative adjective, we can use a possessive determiner (my, his, their), or the + a number (two, three, first, second), or a possessive determiner + a number:

My worst score ever in an exam was zero. I just couldn’t answer any of the questions.

Birmingham is the second biggest city in England.

His two best friends organised a surprise party for him on his fortieth birthday.

Emphasising superlative adjectives

We can make a superlative adjective stronger with by far, easily or of all:

The Beatles were by far the most successful rock band of the 1960s.

This method is by far the least complicated.

She’s easily the best dancer in the group. No one is as elegant as her.

There were a number of excellent poems entered for the competition, but the best poem of all was written by a ten-year-old boy.

In more formal situations, we can use quite:

This is quite the most irresponsible behaviour I have ever seen.

To-infinitives after superlative adjectives

We can use a to-infinitive after a superlative adjective, with a meaning similar to a relative clause with who, which or that:

Who was the oldest person to compete in the London Marathon of 2008? (Who was the oldest person who competed …?)

The Golden Swan was the largest sailing-ship ever to be used in battle.

See also:

Relative clauses

Comparative adjectives: typical errors

A comparative adjective is followed by than, not that or as:

The next hotel we tried was more expensive than the first one.

Not: … more expensive that the first one … or …more expensive as the first one …

After a superlative adjective, we don’t normally use of before a singular name of a place or group:

She was the tallest girl in the team.

Not: She was the tallest girl of the team.

We use the superlative, not the comparative, when we compare more than two people or things:

Which is the city’s biggest hotel?

Not: … bigger hotel


sumber :
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/comparison-adjectives-bigger-biggest-more-interesting

Business English 2 Assignment Part II

Exercise 26 : Adjective and Adverb

1. well
2. intense
3. brightly
4. fluent
5. fluently
6. smooth
7. accurately
8. bitter
9. soon
10. fast

Exercise 27 : Linking (Copulative) verb

1. terrible
2. good
3. good
4. calm
5. sick
6. quickly
7. deligently
8. vehemntly
9. relaxed
10. noisy

Exercise 28 : Comparisons

1. as soon
2. more important
3. as well
4. more expensive
5. as hot
6. more talented
7. more colorful
8. happier
9. worse
10. faster

Exercise 29 : Comparisons

1. than
2. than
3. from
4. than
5. as
6. than
7. as
8. than
9. than
10. from

Exercise 30 : Comparisons

1. Better
2. Happiest
3. Faster
4. Creamist
5. More colorful
6. Better
7. Good
8. more awkwardly
9. least
10. prettier
11. the best
12. than
13. less impressive
14. the sicker
15. than
16. twice as much as
17. few
18. much
19. farthest
20. more famous

Conditional Sentences

Definition:
A type of adverbial clause that states a hypothesis or condition, real or imagined.
A conditional clause may be introduced by the subordinating conjunction if or another conjunction, such as unless, provided that, or in case of.
Like other adverbial clauses, a conditional clause can come either before or after the clause on which it states a condition

Examples and Observations:

• "If you want a friend in Washington, get a dog."
  (Harry Truman)



• "If we had no winter, the spring would not be so pleasant; if we did not sometimes taste of adversity, prosperity would not be so welcome."
  (Anne Bradstreet, "Meditations Divine and Moral")



• "Romans park their cars the way I would park if I had just spilled a beaker of hydrochloric acid on my lap."
  (Bill Bryson, Neither Here Nor There: Travels in Europe. William Morrow, 1992)

• "If I had only known, I would have been a locksmith."
  (Albert Einstein)



• "Conditions deal with imagined situations: some are possible, some are unlikely, some are impossible. The speaker/writer imagines that something can or cannot happen or have happened, and then compares that situation with possible consequences or outcomes, or offers further logical conclusions about the situation."
  (R. Carter, Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006)



• Types of Conditional Clauses
  There are six main types of conditional sentence:
  1. For example, the equilibrium between liquid and vapor is upset if the temperature is increased.
     (General rule, or law of nature: it always happens.)
  
  
  2. If you start thinking about this game, it will drive you crazy.
     (Open future condition: it may or may not happen.)
  
  
  3. But if you really wanted to be on Malibu Beach, you'd be there.
     (Unlikely future condition: it probably won't happen.)
  
  
  4. If I were you, I would go to the conference center itself and ask to see someone in security.
     (Impossible future condition: it could never happen.)

5. "I would have resigned if they had made the decision themselves," she said.
   (Impossible past condition: it didn't happen.)


6. If he had been working for three days and three nights then it was in the suit he was wearing now.
   (Unknown past condition: we don't know the facts.)

(John Seely, Grammar for Teachers. Oxpecker, 2007)

Business English 2 Assignment

 Exercise 21 : Conditional Sentence

1. were understand
2. wouldn't have been
3. will give
4. would have told
5. would have been
6. had
7. could stop
8. were needed
9. would have found
10. enjoyed
11. paint
12. were
13. she write
14. could have permitted
15. were spednding
16. willl accept
17. has buyu
18. has decideod
19. would havwe written
20. will leak
21. had studied
22. has hear
23. see
24. has get
25. turn
26. were
27. would have called
28. would have talked
29. explained
30. spoke

Exercise 22 : Used To

1. eating
2. eat
3. swim
4. like
5. speaking
6. studying
7. dance
8. sleeping
9. eating
10. eat

Exercise 23 : Would Rather

1. stay
2. have stayed
3. work
4. study
5. not study
6. have
7. had stood
8. not cook
9. hadn't arrived
10. have slept

Exercise 24 : Must/Should + Perfective

1. should have had
2. must have been
3. must have damaged
4. mustn't have parked
5. must have studied
6. should have studied
7. must have been
8. should have deposited
9. must have forgotten
10. must not studied

Exercise 25 : Modals+Perfective

1. I would
2. would have gone
3. may have had
4. must have done
5. must have forgotten
6. may have slept
7. might have had
8. could have lost
9. shouldn't have driven
10. may have run

INFLASI DI INDONESIA : SUMBER-SUMBER PENYEBAB DAN PENGENDALIANNYA

ABSTRAK

Krisis moneter yang melanda negara-negara ASEAN, termasuk Indonesia, telah menyebabkan rusaknya sendi-sendi perekonomian nasional. Krisis moneter menyebabkan terjadinya imported inflation sebagai akibat dari terdepresiasinya secara tajam nilai tukar rupiah terhadap mata uang asing, yang selanjutnya mengakibatkan tekanan inflasi yang berat bagi Indonesia. Fenomena inflasi di Indonesia sebenarnya semata-mata bukan merupakan suatu fenomena jangka pendek saja dan yang terjadi secara situasional, tetapi seperti halnya yang umum terjadi pada negara-negara yang sedang berkembang lainnya, masalah inflasi di Indonesia lebih pada masalah inflasi jangka panjang karena masih terdapatnya hambatan-hambatan struktural dalam perekonomian negara. Dengan demikian, maka pembenahan masalah inflasi di Indonesia tidak cukup dilakukan dengan menggunakan instrumen-instrumen moneter saja, yang umumnya bersifat jangka pendek, tetapi juga dengan melakukan pembenahan di sektor riil, yaitu dengan target utama mengeliminasi hambatan-hambatan struktural yang ada dalam perekonomian nasional.

Kata kunci : inflasi, structural bottleneck.

1. LATAR BELAKANG

Krisis moneter yang melanda negara-negara anggota ASEAN, telah memporak- porandakan struktur perekonomian negara-negara tersebut. Bahkan bagi Indonesia, akibat dari terjadinya krisis moneter yang kemudian berlanjut pada krisis ekonomi dan politik ini, telah menyebabkan kerusakan yang cukup signifikan terhadap sendi- sendi perekonomian nasional. Krisis moneter yang melanda Indonesia diawali dengan terdepresiasinya secara tajam nilai tukar rupiah terhadap mata uang asing (terutama dolar Amerika), akibat adanya domino effect dari terdepresiasinya mata uang Thailand (bath), salah satunya telah mengakibatkan terjadinya lonjakan harga barang-barang yang diimpor Indonesia dari luar negeri. Lonjakan harga barang-barang impor ini, menyebabkan harga hampir semua barang yang dijual di dalam negeri meningkat baik secara langsung maupun secara tidak langsung, terutama pada barang yang memiliki kandungan barang impor yang tinggi. Karena gagal mengatasi krisis moneter dalam jangka waktu yang pendek, bahkan cenderung berlarut-larut, menyebabkan kenaikan tingkat harga terjadi secara umum dan semakin berlarut-larut. Akibatnya, angka inflasi nasional melonjak cukup tajam. Lonjakan yang cukup tajam terhadap angka inflasi nasional yang tanpa diimbangi oleh peningkatan pendapatan nominal masyarakat, telah menyebabkan pendapatan riil rakyat semakin merosot. Juga, pendapatan per kapita penduduk merosot relatif sangat cepat, yang mengakibatkan Indonesia kembali masuk dalam golongan negara miskin. Hal ini telah menyebabkan semakin beratnya beban hidup masyarakat, khususnya pada masyarakat strata ekonomi bawah. Jika melihat begitu dasyatnya pengaruh lonjakan angka inflasi di Indonesia (akibat dari imported inflation yang dipicu oleh terdepresiasinya nilai tukar rupiah terhadap mata uang asing) terhadap perekonomian nasional, maka dirasa perlu untuk memberikan perhatian ekstra terhadap masalah inflasi ini dengan cara mencermati kembali teori-teori yang membahas tentang inflasi; faktor-faktor yang menjadi sumber penyebab timbulnya inflasi di Indonesia; serta langkah-langkah apakah yang sebaiknya diambil untuk dapat keluar dari perangkap inflasi ini.

2. TINJAUAN TEORITIS TENTANG INFLASI

2.1 Teori Kuantitas

Teori ini adalah teori yang tertua yang membahas tentang inflasi, tetapi dalam perkembangannya teori ini mengalami penyempurnaan oleh para ahli ekonomi Universitas Chicago, sehingga teori ini juga dikenal sebagai model kaum moneteris (monetarist models). Teori ini menekankan pada peranan jumlah uang beredar dan harapan (ekspektasi) masyarakat mengenai kenaikan harga terhadap timbulnya inflasi. Inti dari teori ini adalah sebagai berikut :

1. Inflasi hanya bisa terjadi kalau ada penambahan volume uang beredar, baik uang kartal maupun         giral.

2. Laju inflasi juga ditentukan oleh laju pertambahan jumlah uang beredar dan oleh harapan                     (ekspektasi) masyarakat mengenai kenaikan harga di masa mendatang.

2.2 Keynesian Model

     Dasar pemikiran model inflasi dari Keynes ini, bahwa inflasi terjadi karena masyarakat ingin hidup di luar batas kemampuan ekonomisnya, sehingga menyebabkan permintaan efektif masyarakat terhadap barang-barang (permintaan agregat) melebihi jumlah barang-barang yang tersedia (penawaran agregat), akibatnya akan terjadi inflationary gap. Keterbatasan jumlah persediaan barang (penawaran agregat) ini terjadi karena dalam jangka pendek kapasitas produksi tidak dapat dikembangkan untuk mengimbangi kenaikan permintaan agregat. Oleh karenanya sama seperti pandangan kaum monetarist, Keynesian models ini lebih banyak dipakai untuk menerangkan fenomena inflasi dalam jangka pendek. Dengan keadaan daya beli antara golongan yang ada di masyarakat tidak sama (heretogen), maka selanjutnya akan terjadi realokasi barang-barang yang tersedia dari golongan masyarakat yang memiliki daya beli yang relatif rendah kepada golongan masyarakat yang memiliki daya beli yang lebih besar. Kejadian ini akan terus terjadi di masyarakat. Sehingga, laju inflasi akan berhenti hanya apabila salah satu golongan masyarakat tidak bisa lagi memperoleh dana (tidak lagi memiliki daya beli) untuk membiayai pembelian barang pada tingkat harga yang berlaku, sehingga permintaan efektif masyarakat secara keseluruhan tidak lagi melebihi supply barang (inflationary gap menghilang).

2.3 Mark-up Model

Pada teori ini dasar pemikiran model inflasi ditentukan oleh dua komponen, yaitu cost of production dan profit margin. Relasi antara perubahan kedua komponen ini dengan perubahan harga dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut :

Price = Cost + Profit Margin

Karena besarnya profit margin ini biasanya telah ditentukan sebagai suatu prosentase tertentu dari jumlah cost of production, maka rumus tersebut dapat dijabarkan menjadi :

Price = Cost + ( a% x Cost )

Dengan demikian, apabila terjadi kenaikan harga pada komponen-komponen yang menyusun cost of production dan atau penaikan pada profit margin akan menyebabkan terjadinya kenaikan pada harga jual komoditi di pasar.

2.4 Teori Struktural : Model Inflasi di Negara Berkembang

     Banyak study mengenai inflasi di negara-negara berkembang, menunjukan bahwa inflasi bukan semata-mata merupakan fenomena moneter, tetapi juga merupakan fenomena struktural atau cost push inflation. Hal ini disebabkan karena struktur ekonomi negara-negara berkembang pada umumnya yang masih bercorak agraris. Sehingga, goncangan ekonomi yang bersumber dari dalam negeri, misalnya gagal panen (akibat faktor eksternal pergantian musim yang terlalu cepat, bencana

alam, dan sebagainya), atau hal-hal yang memiliki kaitan dengan hubungan luar negeri, misalnya memburuknya term of trade; utang luar negeri; dan kurs valuta asing, dapat menimbulkan fluktuasi harga di pasar domestik. Fenomena struktural yang disebabkan oleh kesenjangan atau kendala struktural dalam perekonomian di negara berkembang, sering disebut dengan structural bottlenecks. Strucktural bottleneck terutama terjadi dalam tiga hal, yaitu :

1. Supply dari sektor pertanian (pangan) tidak elastis. Hal ini dikarenakan pengelolaan dan pengerjaan sektor pertanian yang masih menggunakan metode dan teknologi yang sederhana, sehingga seringkali terjadi supply dari sektor pertanian domestik tidak mampu mengimbangi pertumbuhan permintaannya.

2. Cadangan valuta asing yang terbatas (kecil) akibat dari pendapatan ekspor yang lebih kecil daripada pembiayaan impor. Keterbatasan cadangan valuta asing ini menyebabkan kemampuan untuk mengimpor barang- barang baik bahan baku; input antara; maupun barang modal yang sangat dibutuhkan untuk pembangunan sektor industri menjadi terbatas pula. Belum lagi ditambah dengan adanya demonstration effect yang dapat menyebabkan perubahan pola konsumsi masyarakat. Akibat dari lambatnya laju pembangunan sektor industri, seringkali menyebabkan laju pertumbuhan supply barang tidak dapat mengimbangi laju pertumbuhan permintaan.

3. Pengeluaran pemerintah terbatas. Hal ini disebabkan oleh sektor penerimaan rutin yang terbatas, yang tidak cukup untuk membiayai pembangunan, akibatnya timbul defisit anggaran belanja, sehingga seringkali menyebabkan dibutuhkan-nya pinjaman dari luar negeri ataupun mungkin pada umumnya dibiayai dengan pencetakan uang (printing of money). Dengan adanya structural bottlenecks ini, dapat memperparah inflasi di negara berkembang dalam jangka panjang, oleh karenanya fenomena inflasi di negara-negara yang sedang berkembang kadangkala menjadi suatu fenomena jangka panjang, yang tidak dapat diselesaikan dalam jangka waktu yang pendek. Berbeda dengan kaum monetaris yang memandang inflasi sebagai fenomena moneter, yang disebabkan oleh ketidakseimbangan dalam sektor moneter akibat dari ekspansi jumlah uang beredar, kaum neo-structuralist menekankan pada struktur sektor keuangan. Dasar pemikiran kaum neo-structuralist ini adalah pengaruh uang terhadap perekonomian terutama ditransmisikan dari supply side atau produksi. Menurut pemikiran kaum neo-structuralist, uang merupakan salah satu faktor penentu investasi dan produksi. Bila jumlah uang yang tersedia untuk investasi melimpah, menyebabkan harga uang (suku bunga) akan murah, maka volume investasi akan meningkat. Dengan meningkatnya volume investasi, volume produksi juga akan meningkat. Sehingga, penawaran barang meningkat, yang pada gilirannya akan menekan tingkat inflasi. Dengan dasar pemikiran yang seperti ini, timbul pendapat bahwa deregulasi di sektor finansial dan peningkatan jumlah uang beredar akan mendorong laju pertumbuhan ekonomi seraya menekan inflasi. Kaum strukturalis berpendapat, bahwa selain harga komoditi pangan, penyebab utama terjadinya inflasi di negara-negara berkembang adalah akibat inflasi dari luar negeri (imported inflation). Hal ini disebabkan antara lain oleh harga barang- barang impor yang meningkat di daerah asalnya, atau terjadinya devaluasi atau depresiasi mata uang di negara pengimpor. Menurut kesimpulan dari penelitian M.N. Dalal dan G. Schachter (1988), bila kontribusi impor terhadap pembentukan output domestik sangat besar, yang artinya sifat barang impor tersebut sangat penting terhadap price behaviour di negara importir, maka kenaikan harga barang impor akan menyebabkan tekanan inflasi di dalam negeri yang cukup besar. Selain itu, semakin rendah derajat kompetisi yang dimiliki oleh barang impor (price inelastic) terhadap produk dalam negeri, akan semakin besar pula dampak perubahan harga barang impor tersebut terhadap inflasi domestik.

2.5 Jenis Inflasi

   Dalam ilmu ekonomi, inflasi dapat dibedakan menjadi beberapa jenis dalam pengelompokan tertentu, dan pengelompokan yang akan dipakai akan sangat bergantung pada tujuan yang hendak dicapai.

Jenis inflasi :

1. Menurut Derajatnya

     Inflasi ringan di bawah 10% (single digit)

     Inflasi sedang 10% - 30%.

     Inflasi tinggi 30% - 100%.

     Hyperinflasion di atas 100%.

Laju inflasi tersebut bukanlah suatu standar yang secara mutlak dapat mengindikasikan parah tidaknya dampak inflasi bagi perekonomian di suatu wilayah tertentu, sebab hal itu sangat bergantung pada berapa bagian dan golongan masyarakat manakah yang terkena imbas ( yang menderita ) dari inflasi yang sedang terjadi.

2. Menurut Penyebabnya

   Demand pull inflation, yaitu inflasi yang disebabkan oleh terlalu kuatnya peningkatan aggregate demand masyarakat terhadap komoditi-komoditi hasil produksi di pasar barang. Akibatnya, akan menarik (pull) kurva permintaan agregat ke arah kanan atas, sehingga terjadi excess demand , yang merupakan inflationary gap. Dan dalam kasus inflasi jenis ini, kenaikan harga-harga barang biasanya akan selalu diikuti dengan peningkatan output (GNP riil) dengan asumsi bila perekonomian masih belum mencapai kondisi full-employment. Pengertian kenaikkan aggregate demand seringkali ditafsirkan berbeda oleh para ahli ekonomi. Golongan moneterist menganggap aggregate demand mengalami kenaikkan akibat dari ekspansi jumlah uang yang beredar di masyarakat. Sedangkan, menurut golongan Keynesian kenaikkan aggregate demand dapat disebabkan oleh meningkatnya pengeluaran konsumsi; investasi; government expenditures; atau net export, walaupun tidak terjadi ekspansi jumlah uang beredar.

    Cost push inflation, yaitu inflasi yang dikarenakan bergesernya aggregate supply curve ke arah kiri atas. Faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan aggregate supply curve bergeser tersebut adalah meningkatnya harga faktor-faktor produksi (baik yang berasal dari dalam negeri maupun dari luar negeri) di pasar faktor produksi, sehingga menyebabkan kenaikkan harga komoditi di pasar komoditi. Dalam kasus cost push inflation kenaikan harga seringkali diikuti oleh kelesuan usaha.

3. Menurut Asalnya

  Domestic inflation, yaitu inflasi yang sepenuhnya disebabkan oleh kesalahan pengelolaan perekonomian baik di sektor riil ataupun di sektor moneter di dalam negeri oleh para pelaku ekonomi dan masyarakat.

       Imported inflation, yaitu inflasi yang disebabkan oleh adanya kenaikan harga-harga komoditi di luar negeri (di negara asing yang memiliki hubungan perdagangan dengan negara yang bersangkutan). Inflasi ini hanya dapat terjadi pada negara yang menganut sistem perekonomian terbuka (open economy system). Dan, inflasi ini dapat ‘menular’ baik melalui harga barang-barang impor maupun harga barang-barang ekspor. Terlepas dari pengelompokan-pengelompokan tersebut, pada kenyataannya inflasi yang terjadi di suatu negara sangat jarang (jika tidak boleh dikatakan tidak ada) yang disebabkan oleh satu macam / jenis inflasi, tetapi acapkali karena kombinasi dari beberapa jenis inflasi. Hal ini dikarenakan tidak ada faktor-faktor ekonomi maupun pelaku-pelaku ekonomi yang benar-benar memiliki hubungan yang independen dalam suatu sistem perekonomian negara. Contoh : imported inflation seringkali diikuti oleh cost push inflation, domestic inflation diikuti dengan demand pull inflation, dsb.

3. PEMBAHASAN

3.1 Perkembangan Inflasi di Indonesia

      Seperti halnya yang terjadi pada negara-negara berkembang pada umumnya, fenomena inflasi di Indonesia masih menjadi satu dari berbagai “penyakit” ekonomi makro yang meresahkan pemerintah terlebih bagi masyarakat. Memang, menjelang akhir pemerintahan Orde Baru (sebelum krisis moneter) angka inflasi tahunan dapat ditekan sampai pada single digit, tetapi secara umum masih mengandung kerawanan jika dilihat dari seberapa besar prosentase kelompok masyarakat golongan miskin yang menderita akibat inflasi. Lebih-lebih setelah semakin berlanjutnya krisis moneter yang kemudian diikuti oleh krisis ekonomi, yang menjadi salah satu dari penyebab jatuhnya pemerintahan Orde Baru, angka inflasi cenderung meningkat pesat (mencapai lebih dari 75 % pada tahun 1998), dan diperparah dengan semakin besarnya presentase golongan masyarakat miskin. Sehingga bisa dikatakan, bahwa meskipun angka inflasi di Indonesia termasuk dalam katagori tinggi, tetapi dengan meninjau presentase golongan masyarakat

ekonomi bawah yang menderita akibat inflasi cukup besar, maka sebenarnya dapat

dikatakan bahwa inflasi di Indonesia telah masuk dalam stadium awal dari

hyperinflation.

3.2 Sumber-sumber Inflasi di Indonesia

      Apabila ditelaah lebih lanjut, terdapat beberapa faktor utama yang menjadi penyebab timbulnya inflasi di Indonesia, yaitu :

3.2.1 Jumlah uang beredar

        Menurut sudut pandang kaum moneteris jumlah uang beredar adalah faktor utama yang dituding sebagai penyebab timbulnya inflasi di setiap negara, tidak terkecuali di Indonesia. Di Indonesia jumlah uang beredar ini lebih banyak diterjemahkan dalam konsep narrow money ( M1 ). Hal ini terjadi karena masih adanya anggapan, bahwa uang kuasi hanya merupakan bagian dari likuiditas perbankan. Sejak tahun 1976 presentase uang kartal yang beredar (48,7%) lebih kecil dari pada presentase jumlah uang giral yang beredar (51,3%). Sehingga, mengindikasikan bahwa telah terjadi proses modernisasi di sektor moneter Indonesia. Juga, mengindikasikan bahwa semakin sulitnya proses pengendalian jumlah uang beredar di Indonesia, dan semakin meluasnya monetisasi dalam kegiatan perekonomian subsistence, akibatnya memberikan kecenderungan meningkatnya laju inflasi.

Menurut data yang dihimpun dalam Laporan Bank Dunia, menunjukan laju pertumbuhan rata-rata jumlah uang beredar di Indonesia pada periode tahun 1980-1992 relatif tinggi jika dibandingkan dengan negara-negara ASEAN lainnya. Dan, tingkat inflasi Indonesia juga relatif tinggi dibandingkan dengan negara-negara ASEAN lainnya (kecuali Filipina). Kenaikkan jumlah uang beredar di Indonesia pada tahun 1970-an sampai awal tahun 1980-an lebih disebabkan oleh pertumbuhan kredit likuiditas dan defisit anggaran belanja pemerintah. Pertumbuhan ini dapat merupakan efek langsung dari kebijaksanaan Bank Indonesia dalam sektor keuangan (terutama dalam hal penurunan reserve requirement).

3.2.1 Defisit Anggaran Belanja Pemerintah

     Seperti halnya yang umum terjadi pada negara berkembang, anggaran belanja pemerintah Indonesia pun sebenarnya mengalami defisit, meskipun Indonesia menganut prinsip anggaran berimbang. Defisitnya anggaran belanja ini banyak kali disebabkan oleh hal-hal yang menyangkut ketegaran struktural ekonomi Indonesia, yang acapkali menimbulkan kesenjangan antara kemauan dan kemampuan untuk membangun. Selama pemerintahan Orde Lama defisit anggaran belanja ini acapkali dibiayai dari dalam negeri dengan cara melakukan pencetakan uang baru, mengingat orientasi kebijaksanaan pembangunan ekonomi yang inward looking policy, sehingga menyebabkan tekanan inflasi yang hebat. Tetapi sejak era Orde Baru, defisit anggaran belanja ini ditutup dengan pinjaman luar negeri yang nampaknya relatif aman terhadap tekanan inflasi. Dalam  era  pemerintahan  Orde  Baru,  kebutuhan  terhadap  percepatan pertumbuhan ekonomi yang telah dicanangkan sejak Pembangunan Jangka Panjang I, menyebabkan kebutuhan dana untuk melakukan pembangunan sangat besar. Dengan mengingat bahwa potensi memobilisasi dana pembangunan dari masyarakat (baik dari sektor tabungan masyarakat maupun pendapatan pajak) di dalam negeri pada saat itu yang sangat terbatas (belum berkembang), juga kemampuan sektor swasta yang terbatas dalam melakukan pembangunan, menyebabkan pemerintah harus berperan sebagai motor pembangunan. Hal ini menyebabkan pos pengeluaran APBN menjadi lebih besar daripada penerimaan rutin. Artinya, peran pengeluaran pemerintah dalam investasi tidak dapat diimbangi dengan penerimaan, sehingga menimbulkan kesenjangan antara pengeluaran dan penerimaan negara, atau dapat dikatakan telah terjadi defisit struktural dalam keuangan negara. Pada saat terjadinya oil booming, era tahun 1970-an, pendapatan pemerintah di sektor migas meningkat pesat, sehingga jumlah uang primer pun semakin meningkat. Hal ini menyebabkan kemampuan pemerintah untuk berekspansi investasi di dalam negeri semakin meningkat. Dengan kondisi tingkat pertumbuhan produksi domestik yang relatif lebih lambat, akibat kapasitas produksi nasional yang masih berada dalam keadaan under-employment, peningkatan permintaan (investasi) pemerintah menyebabkan terjadi realokasi sumberdaya dari masyarakat ke pemerintah., seperti yang terkonsep dalam analisis Keynes tentang inflasi. Hal inilah yang menyebabkan timbulnya tekanan inflasi. Tetapi, sejak berubahnya orientasi ekspor Indonesia ke komoditi non migas, sejalan dengan merosotnya harga minyak bumi di pasar ekspor (sejak tahun 1982), menyebabkan kemampuan pemerintah untuk membiayai pembangunan nasional semakin berkurang pula, sehingga pemerintah tidak dapat lagi mempertahankan posisinya sebagai penggerak (motor) pembangunan. Dengan kondisi seperti ini,

menyebabkan secara bertahap peran sebagai penggerak utama pembangunan nasional beralih ke pihak swasta nasional, dengan demikian sumber tekanan inflasi pun beralih dari pemerintah beralih ke non pemerintah (swasta). Tekanan inflasi pada periode ini lebih disebabkan oleh meningkatnya tingkat agresifitas sektor swasta dalam melakukan ekspansi usaha, yang didukung oleh perkembangan sektor perbankan yang semakin ekspansif pula. Dengan kondisi sumberdaya modal domestik yang masih saja relatif terbatas, maka pinjaman luar negeri yang sifatnya non komersial maupun komersial pun semakin meningkat. Akibatnya, tetap saja terjadi defisit anggaran belanja negara dan neraca pembayaran, salah satu sebabnya karena pemerintah tetap saja harus menyediakan

infrastruktur dan suprastruktur pembangunan ekonomi yang kebutuhannya semakin meningkat. Peran pemerintah ini dapat dimaklumi karena kemampuan swasta nasional dalam pembangunan infrastruktur ekonomi masih sangat terbatas.

3.2.3 Faktor-faktor dalam Penawaran Agregat dan Luar Negeri

        Kelambanan penyesuaian dari faktor-faktor penawaran agregat terhadap peningkatan permintaan agregat ini lebih banyak disebabkan oleh adanya hambatan-hambatan struktural (structural bottleneck) yang ada di Indonesia. Harga bahan pangan merupakan salah satu penyumbang terbesar terhadap tingkat inflasi di Indonesia. Hal ini antara lain disebabkan oleh ketegaran struktural yang terjadi di sektor pertanian sehingga menyebabkan inelastisnya penawaran bahan pangan. Ketergantungan perekonomian Indonesia yang besar terhadap sektor pertanian, yang tercermin oleh peranan nilai tambahnya yang relatif besar dan daya serap tenaga kerjanya yang sedemikian tinggi serta beban penduduk yang cukup tinggi, mengakibatkan harga bahan pangan meningkat pesat. Umumnya, laju penawaran bahan pangan tidak dapat mengimbangi laju permintaannya, sehingga sering terjadi excess demand yang selanjutnya dapat memunculkan inflationary gap. Timbulnya excess demand ini disebabkan oleh percepatan pertambahan penduduk yang membutuhkan bahan pangan tidak dapat diimbangi dengan pertambahan output pertanian, khususnya pangan. Di sisi lain, kelambanan produksi bahan pangan disebabkan oleh berbagai hal, diantaranya adalah tingkat modernisasi teknologi dan metode pertanian yang kurang maksimal; adanya faktor-faktor eksternal dalam pertanian seperti, perubahan iklim dan bencana alam; perpindahan tenaga kerja pertanian ke sektor non pertanian akibat industrialisasi; juga semakin sempitnya luas lahan yang digunakan untuk pertanian, yang disebabkan semakin banyaknya lahan pertanian yang beralih fungsi sebagai lokasi perumahan; industri; dan pengembangan kota. Lebih lanjut, menurut hasil study empiris yang pernah dilakukan oleh Sri Mulyani Indrawati (1996), selain harga bahan pangan, kontributor inflasi di Indonesia lainnya dari sisi penawaran agregat adalah imported inflation, administrated goods, output gap, dan interest rate. Pertama, imported inflation ini terjadi akibat tingginya derajat ketergantungan sektor riil di Indonesia terhadap barang-barang impor, baik capital goods; intermediated good; maupun row material. Transmisi imported inflation di Indonesia ini terjadi melalui dua hal, yaitu depresiasi rupiah terhadap mata uang asing dan perubahan harga barang impor di negara asalnya. Bila suatu ketika terjadi depresiasi rupiah yang cukup tajam terhadap mata uang asing, maka akan menyebabkan bertambah beratnya beban biaya yang harus ditanggung oleh produsen, baik itu untuk pembayaran bahan baku dan barang perantara ataupun beban hutang luar negeri akibat ekspansi usaha yang telah dilakukan. Hal ini menyebabkan harga jual output di dalam negeri (khususnya untuk industri subtitusi impor) akan meningkat tajam, sehingga potensial meningkatkan derajat inflasi di dalam negeri. Tetapi, untuk industri yang bersifat promosi ekspor, depresiasi tersebut tidak akan membawa dampak buruk yang signifikan. Berkaitan dengan posisi hutang luar negeri Indonesia, pada periode tahun 1990-an, telah membengkak dengan tingkat debt service ratio yang semakin tinggi, yaitu lebih dari 40 %, dan presentase tingkat hutang yang bersifat komersial telah melampaui hutang non komersial. Menyebabkan, timbulnya hal yang sangat membahayakan ketahanan ekonomi nasional, terutama pada sektor finansial, apabila terjadi fluktuasi (memburuknya) nilai tukar (kurs), disamping dapat mengakibatkan tekanan inflasi yang berat, khususnya imported inflation. Kedua, administrated goods adalah barang-barang yang harganya diatur dan ditetapkan oleh pemerintah. Meskipun pengaruhnya secara langsung sangat kecil dalam mempengaruhi tingkat inflasi, tetapi secara situasional dan tidak langsung pengaruhnya dapat menjadi signifikan. Contoh, apabila terjadi kenaikan BBM, maka bukan saja harga BBM yang naik, harga barang atau tarif jasa yang terkait dengan BBM juga akan ikut dinaikan oleh masyarakat. Akibatnya, dapat memperberat tekanan inflasi. Ketiga, output gap adalah perbedaan antara actual output (output yang diproduksi) dengan potential output (output yang seharusnya dapat diproduksi dalam keadaan full employment). Adanya kesenjangan (gap) ini terjadi karena faktor-faktor produksi yang dipakai dalam proses produksi belum maksimal dan atau efisien. Keempat, interest rate juga merupakan faktor penting yang menyumbang angka inflasi di Indonesia. Memang pada awalnya merupakan hal yang cukup membingungkan dalam menentukan manakah yang menjadi independent variable atau dependent, antara inflasi dan suku bunga. Tetapi, bila ditilik dari sisi biaya produksi dan investasi (sisi penawaran), maka jelaslah bahwa suku bunga dapat dikatagorikan dalam komponen biaya-biaya tersebut. Dengan relatif tingginya tingkat suku bunga perbankan di Indonesia, menyebabkan biaya produksi dan investasi di Indonesia, yang dibiayai melalui kredit perbankan, akan tinggi juga. Jadi, apabila tingkat suku bunga meningkat, maka biaya produksi akan meningkat, selanjutnya akan meningkatkan pula harga output di pasar, akibatnya terjadi tekanan inflasi. Akhirnya, relasi antara tingkat suku bunga dan inflasi ini bisa menjadi interest rate-price spiral.

3.3 Pengendalian Inflasi di Indonesia

      Sebagaimana halnya yang umum terjadi pada negara – negara berkembang, inflasi di Indonesia relatif lebih banyak disebabkan oleh hal-hal yang bersifat struktural ekonomi bila dibandingkan dengan hal-hal yang bersifat monetary policies. Sehingga bisa dikatakan, bahwa pengaruh dari cosh push inflation lebih besar dari pada demand pull inflation. Memang dalam periode tahun-tahun tertentu, misalnya pada saat terjadinya oil booming, tekanan inflasi di Indonesia disebabkan meningkatnya jumlah uang beredar. Tetapi hal tersebut tidak dapat mengabaikan adanya pengaruh yang bersifat struktural ekonomi, sebab pada periode tersebut, masih terjadi kesenjangan antara penawaran agregat dengan permintaan agregat, contohnya di sub sektor pertanian, yang dapat meningkatkan derajat inflasi. Pada umumnya pemerintah Indonesia lebih banyak menggunakan pendekatan moneter dalam upaya mengendalikan tingkat harga umum. Pemerintah Indonesia lebih senang menggunakan instrumen moneter sebagai alat untuk meredam inflasi, misalnya dengan open market mechanism atau reserve requirement. Tetapi perlu diingat, bahwa pendekatan moneter lebih banyak dipakai untuk mengatasi inflasi dalam jangka pendek, dan sangat baik diterapkan peda negara-negara yang telah maju perekonomiannya, bukan pada negara berkembang yang masih memiliki structural bottleneck. Jadi, apabila pendekatan moneter ini dipakai sebagai alat utama dalam mengendalikan inflasi di negara berkembang, maka tidak akan dapat menyelesaikan problem inflasi di negara berkembang yang umumnya berkarak- teristik jangka panjang. Seperti halnya yang terjadi di Indonesia pada saat krisis moneter yang selanjutnya menjadi krisis ekonomi, inflasi di Indonesia dipicu oleh kenaikan harga komoditi impor (imported inflation) dan membengkaknya hutang luar negeri akibat dari terdepresiasinya nilai tukar rupiah terhadap dolar Amerika dan mata uang asing lainnya. Akibatnya, untuk mengendalikan tekanan inflasi, maka terlebih dahulu harus dilakukan penstabilan nilai tukar rupiah terhadap valuta asing, khususnya dolar Amerika. Dalam menstabilkan nilai kurs, pemerintah Indonesia cenderung lebih banyak memainkan instrumen moneter melalui otoritas moneter dengan tight money policy yang diharapkan selain dapat menarik minat para pemegang valuta asing untuk menginvestasikan modalnya ke Indonesia melalui deposito, juga dapat menstabilkan ingkat harga umum. Tight money policy yang dilakukan dengan cara menaikkan tingkat suku bunga SBI (melalui open market mechanism) sangat tinggi, pada satu sisi akan efektif untuk mengurangi money suplly, tetapi di sisi lain akan meningkatkan suku bunga kredit untuk sektor riil. Akibatnya, akan menyebabkan timbulnya cost push inflation karena adanya interest rate-price spiral. Apabila tingkat suku bunga (deposito) perbankan sudah terlalu tinggi, sehingga dana produktif (dana untuk berproduksi atau berusaha) yang ada di masyarakat ikut terserap ke perbankan, maka akan dapat menyebabkan timbulnya stagnasi atau bahkan penurunan output produksi nasional (disebut dengan Cavallo effect). Lebih lagi bila sampai terjadi negatif spread pada dunia perbankan nasional, maka bukan saja menimbulkan kerusakan pada sektor riil, tetapi juga kerusakan pada industri perbankan nasional (sektor moneter). Jika kebijaksanaan ini terus dilakukan oleh pemerintah dalam jangka waktu menengah atau panjang, maka akan terjadi depresi ekonomi, akibatnya struktur

perekonomian nasional akan rusak. Jika demikian halnya, maka sebaiknya kebijaksanaan pengendalian inflasi bukan hanya dilakukan melalui konsep kaum moneterist saja, tetapi juga dengan

memperhatikan cara pandang kaum structuralist, yang lebih memandang perlunya mengatasi hambatan-hambatan struktural yang ada. Dengan berpedoman pada berbagai hambatan dalam pembangunan perekonomi- an Indonesia yang telah disebutkan di atas, maka perlu berbagai upaya pembenahan, yaitu :

3.3.1 Meningkatkan Supply Bahan Pangan

       Meningkatkan supply bahan pangan dapat dilakukan dengan lebih memberikan perhatian pada pembangunan di sektor pertanian, khususnya sub sektor pertanian pangan. Modernisasi teknologi dan metode pengolahan lahan, serta penambahan luas lahan pertanian perlu dilakukan untuk meningkatkan laju produksi bahan pangan agar tercipta swasembada pangan.

3.3.2 Mengurangi Defisit APBN

        Mungkin dalam masa krisis ekonomi mengurangi defisit APBN tidak dapat dilaksanakan, tetapi dalam jangka panjang (setelah krisis berlalu) perlu dilakukan. Untuk mengurangi defisit anggaran belanja, pemerintah harus dapat meningkatkan penerimaan rutinnya, terutama dari sektor pajak dengan benar dan tepat karena hal ini juga dapat menekan excess demand. Dengan semakin naiknya penerimaan dalam negeri, diharapkan pemerintah dapat mengurangi ketergantungannya terhadap  pinjaman dana dari luar negeri. Dengan demikian anggaran belanja pemerintah nantinya akan lebih mencerminkan sifat yang relative independent.

3.3.3 Meningkatkan Cadangan Devisa

       Pertama, perlu memperbaiki posisi neraca perdagangan luar negeri (current account), terutama pada perdagangan jasa, agar tidak terus menerus defisit. Dengan demikian diharapkan cadangan devisa nasional akan dapat ditingkatkan. Juga, diusahakan untuk meningkatkan kinerja ekspor, sehingga net export harus semakin meningkat. Kedua, diusahakan agar dapat mengurangi ketergantungan industri domestik terhadap barang-barang luar negeri, misalnya dengan lebih banyak memfokuskan pembangunan pada industri hulu yang mengolah sumberdaya alam yang tersedia di dalam negeri untuk dipakai sebagai bahan baku bagi industri hilir. Selain itu juga perlu dikembangkan industri yang mampu memproduksi barang-barang modal untuk industri di dalam negeri. Ketiga, mengubah sifat industri dari yang bersifat substitusi impor kepada yang lebih bersifat promosi ekspor, agar terjadi efisiensi di sektor harga dan meningkatkan net export. Keempat, membangun industri yang mampu menghasilkan nilai tambah yang tinggi dan memiliki kandungan komponen lokal yang relatif tinggi pula.

3.3.4 Memperbaiki dan Meningkatkan Kemampuan Sisi Penawaran Agregat

        Pertama,  mengurangi  kesenjangan  output  (output  gap)  dengan  cara meningkatkan kualitas sumberdaya pekerja, modernisasi teknologi produksi, serta pembangunan industri manufaktur nasional agar kinerjanya meningkat. Kedua, memperlancar jalur distribusi barang nasional, supaya tidak terjadi kesenjangan penawaran dan permintaan di tingkat regional (daerah). Ketiga, menstabilkan tingkat suku bunga dan menyehatkan perbankan nasional, tujuannya untuk mendukung laju proses industrialisasi nasional. Keempat, menciptakan kondisi yang sehat dalam perekonomian agar market mechanism dapat berjalan dengan benar, dan mengurangi atau bahkan menghilangkan segala bentuk faktor yang dapat menyebabkan distorsi pasar. Kelima, melakukan program deregulasi dan debirokrasi di sektor riil karena acapkali birokrasi yang berbelit dapat menyebabkan high cost economy. Dengan menggunakan dua pendekatan (moneterist dan strukturalist) pada komposisi yang tepat, maka diharapkan bukan saja dalam jangka pendek inflasi dapat dikendalikan, tetapi juga dalam jangka panjang. Dan, bila ada upaya yang serius untuk memperkecil atau bahkan menghilangkan hambatan-hambatan struktural yang ada, maka akan berakibat pada membaiknya fundamental ekonomi Indonesia.

4. KESIMPULAN

Masalah inflasi di Indonesia ternyata bukan saja merupakan fenomena jangka pendek, tetapi juga merupakan fenomena jangka panjang. Dalam arti, bahwa inflasi di Indonesia bukan semata-mata hanya disebabkan oleh gagalnya pelaksanaan kebijaksanaan di sektor moneter oleh pemerintah, yang seringkali dilakukan untuk tujuan menstabilkan fluktuasi tingkat harga umum dalam jangka pendek, tetapi juga mengindikasikan masih adanya hambatan-hambatan struktural dalam perekonomian Indonesia yang belum sepenuhnya dapat diatasi. Apabila mengacu pada usaha pengeliminasian hambatan-hambatan struktural tersebut, maka mau tidak mau harus memperhatikan dengan seksama pembangunan ekonomi di sektor riil. Dengan melakukan pembenahan di sektor riil secara tepat, bahkan mungkin sampai pada tahap messo dan micro ekonomi, maka kemantapan fundamental

ekonomi Indonesia dapat diperkokoh. Defisit APBN; peningkatan cadangan devisa; pembenahan sektor pertanian khususnya pada sub sektor pangan; pembenahan faktor-faktor yang dapat mempengaruhi  posisi  penawaran  agregat  merupakan  hal-hal  yang  perlu mendapatkan penanganan yang serius untuk dapat menekan inflasi ke tingkat yang serendah mungkin di Indonesia, disamping tentunya pengelolaan tepat dan pembenahan di sektor moneter.

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